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.In English we use the verb «go» in the combinations: «to go by bus», «to go by train» etc.In Russian in these cases we use the verb «ехать».The number of meanings does not correspond to the number of words, neither does the number of notions.Their distribution in relation to words is peculiar in every language.The Russian has two words for the English «man»: « мужчина» and «человек».In English, however, «man» cannot be applied to a female person.We say in Russian: «Она хороший человек».In English we use the word «person»/ She is a good person»/Development of lexical meanings in any language is influenced by the whole network of ties and relations between words and other aspects of the language.POLYSEMYThe word «polysemy» means «plurality of meanings» it exists only in the language, not in speech.A word which has more than one meaning is called polysemantic.Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together due to the proximity of notions which they express.E.g.the word «blanket» has the following meanings: a woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a horse warm, a covering of any kind /a blanket of snow/, covering all or most cases /used attributively/, e.g.we can say «a blanket insurance policy».There are some words in the language which are monosemantic, such as most terms, /synonym, molecule, bronchites/, some pronouns /this, my, both/, numerals.There are two processes of the semantic development of a word: radiation and concatination.In cases of radiation the primary meaning stands in the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like rays.Each secondary meaning can be traced to the primmary meaning.E.g.in the word «face» the primary meaning denotes «the front part of the human head» Connected with the front position the meanings: the front part of a watch, the front part of a building, the front part of a playing card were formed.Connected with the word «face» itself the meanings : expression of the face, outward appearance are formed.In cases of concatination secondary meanings of a word develop like a chain.In such cases it is difficult to trace some meanings to the primary one.E.g.in the word «crust» the primary meaning «hard outer part of bread» developed a secondary meaning «hard part of anything /a pie, a cake/», then the meaning »harder layer over soft snow» was developed, then «a sullen gloomy person», then «impudence» were developed.Here the last meanings have nothing to do with the primary ones.In such cases homonyms appear in the language.It is called the split of polysemy.In most cases in the semantic development of a word both ways of semantic development are combined.HOMONYMSHomonyms are words different in meaning but identical in sound or spelling, or both in sound and spelling.Homonyms can appear in the language not only as the result of the split of polysemy, but also as the result of levelling of grammar inflexions, when different parts of speech become identical in their outer aspect, e.g.«care» from «caru» and «care» from «carian».They can be also formed by means of conversion, e.g.«to slim» from «slim», «to water» from «water».They can be formed with the help of the same suffix from the same stem, e.g.«reader»/ a person who reads and a book for reading/.Homonyms can also appear in the language accidentally, when two words coincide in their development, e.g.two native words can coincide in their outer aspects: «to bear» from «beran»/to carry/ and «bear» from «bera»/an animal/.A native word and a borrowing can coincide in their outer aspects, e.g.«fair» from Latin «feria» and «fair « from native «fager» /blond/.Two borrowings can coincide e.g.«base» from the French «base» /Latin basis/ and «base» /low/ from the Latin «bas» /Italian «basso»/.Homonyms can develop through shortening of different words, e.g.«cab» from «cabriolet», «cabbage», «cabin».Classifications of homonyms.Walter Skeat classified homonyms according to their spelling and sound forms and he pointed out three groups: perfect homonyms that is words identical in sound and spelling, such as : «school» - «косяк рыбы» and «школа» ; homographs, that is words with the same spelling but pronounced differently, e.g.«bow» -/bau/ - «поклон» and /bou/ - «лук»; homophones that is words pronounced identically but spelled differently, e.g.«night» - «ночь» and «knight» - «рыцарь».Another classification was suggested by A.I Smirnitsky.He added to Skeat's classification one more criterion: grammatical meaning.He subdivided the group of perfect homonyms in Skeat's classification into two types of homonyms: perfect which are identical in their spelling, pronunciation and their grammar form, such as :»spring» in the meanings: the season of the year, a leap, a source, and homoforms which coincide in their spelling and pronunciation but have different grammatical meaning, e.g.«reading» - Present Participle, Gerund, Verbal noun., to lobby - lobby.A more detailed classification was given by I.V.Arnold.She classified only perfect homonyms and suggested four criteria of their classification: lexical meaning, grammatical meaning, basic forms and paradigms.According to these criteria I.V.Arnold pointed out the following groups: a) homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings, basic forms and paradigms and different in their lexical meanings, e.g.«board» in the meanings «a council» and « a piece of wood sawn thin»; b) homonyms identical in their grammatical meanings and basic forms, different in their lexical meanings and paradigms, e.g.to lie - lied - lied, and to lie - lay - lain; c) homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, paradigms, but coinciding in their basic forms, e.g.«light» / «lights»/, «light» / «lighter», «lightest»/; d) homonyms different in their lexical meanings, grammatical meanings, in their basic forms and paradigms, but coinciding in one of the forms of their paradigms, e.g.«a bit» and «bit» (from « to bite»).In I.V.Arnold's classification there are also patterned homonyms, which, differing from other homonyms, have a common component in their lexical meanings.These are homonyms formed either by means of conversion, or by levelling of grammar inflexions.These homonyms are different in their grammar meanings, in their paradigms, identical in their basic forms, e.g.«warm» - «to warm».Here we can also have unchangeable patterned homonyms which have identical basic forms, different grammatical meanings, a common component in their lexical meanings, e.g.«before» an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition.There are also homonyms among unchangeable words which are different in their lexical and grammatical meanings, identical in their basic foms, e.g.« for» - «для» and «for» - «ибо».SYNONYMSSynonyms are words different in their outer aspects, but identical or similar in their inner aspects.In English there are a lot of synonyms, because there are many borrowings, e.g.hearty / native/ - cordial/ borrowing/.After a word is borrowed it undergoes desynonymization, because absolute synonyms are unnecessary for a language.However, there are some absolute synonyms in the language, which have exactly the same meaning and belong to the same style, e.g.to moan, to groan; homeland, motherland etc.In cases of desynonymization one of the absolute synonyms can specialize in its meaning and we get semantic synonyms, e.g.«city» /borrowed/, «town» /native/.The French borrowing «city» is specialized.In other cases native words can be specialized in their meanings, e.g.«stool» /native/, «chair» /French/.Sometimes one of the absolute synonyms is specialized in its usage and we get stylistic synonyms, e.g [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]